Public Square · Research

Public Costs and Population Data

What authorities and institutions spent

Police expenditure, diverted officer time, physical damage and economic disruption are different entries. The cases below retain the original amount, currency, period and reporting body. A national total requires consistent coverage of forces, public institutions and private operators. An absent total means the published evidence does not establish one.

London · Metropolitan Police cost estimate

Additional police expenditure£26.6m

Total including diverted resources£90m

October 2023 to the Met’s October 2026 briefing. The second bar includes the first. Scope includes 35 large Palestine Coalition protests and other conflict-related demonstrations. Metropolitan Police briefing

Amsterdam · University cost breakdown

Library construction delay€2.80m

Building exteriors€600,000

Catering damage and lost turnover€400,000

Building interiors€300,000

Security systems damage€30,000

May–June 2024 occupations and protests. The rounded items add to €4.13m. The institution’s statement combines damage, lost turnover and delay. University of Amsterdam accounts

Airport disruption in Dagestan

₽285 million was the preliminary estimate of damage to Makhachkala airport after the October 2023 riot. The Russian delegation reported the figure in a statement circulated by the OSCE. It is an airport damage estimate, with no published breakdown in that statement for police expenditure, passenger losses or airlines. Russian delegation statement

More local police accounts

Bern’s cantonal police put the full resource cost of one October 2025 operation at about CHF 1.1 million. Toronto’s board requested C$19.5 million to offset Project Resolute costs through December 2024, which included community protection. These figures differ in currency, period and accounting scope. Bern police and property damage records · Toronto budget records

Follow-up review of 47 country profiles

The November 2026 review records which profiles received new evidence. Operating costs and financial losses remain unavailable for many incidents. A count of arrests describes police activity and cannot substitute for an expenditure record.

Arrests reported by Amsterdam police at two separate demonstrations

May 28, 202473

November 13, 2024281

Counts are arrests, not convictions, expenditure or a trend. May police release · November police release

Local-language records

A later court judgment and the operator’s restoration statement provide different figures for Makhachkala airport. Sarajevo Canton published a three-hour traffic restriction window for a joint demonstration and commemoration, and Greek public broadcaster ERT reported the lifting of restrictions on two Athens avenues. Makhachkala damage and restoration chart · Sarajevo traffic notice · Athens traffic report

Policing workload and city transport

Berlin’s parliamentary answers and police reports document staffing without identifying an additional cash cost. The transport review also documents restrictions at Galata Bridge and traffic blockages in Lisbon and Porto. Germany · Türkiye · Portugal

Claims, charges and public spending

Icelandic courts rejected the Skuggasund compensation claims. The Spanish Congress minutes record a request for a Vuelta damage valuation. Austria’s parliamentary question records a reported charge to one venue during Eurovision. Englewood’s manager reported an overtime total across several activities. Iceland · Spain · Austria · United States

Transport and business disruption

NSW parliamentary records treat protest policing as core expenditure. Sydney’s Harbour Bridge closure provides an observed transport effect without a separate policing bill. ACLED documents disruption at Rotterdam’s port and vandalism targeting businesses during labour strikes in Spain. These cases have different payers and outcomes. See the country records for Australia, the Netherlands and Spain.

Putting a cost on interruptions

A closure can impose lost sales on a business or force travellers to change routes. A repair bill records only expenditure by the body that booked it. Where a source reports detentions, cancelled classes or a road closure without a financial estimate, the underlying article reports the outcome in those units.

Migration and national public finances

The OECD compared the estimated taxes and contributions of immigrants with spending attributed to them in 25 countries from 2006 to 2018. For most countries in that analysis, the overall balance fell between −1% and +1% of GDP. The estimate depends on the attribution of public spending and the age and employment profile of residents. The report studies immigrants in aggregate and contains no fiscal estimate for Muslim immigrants as a group. OECD country comparison and methodology

What public safety studies measure

A German district study covering 2008–2019 estimated a positive effect on recorded crime in the earlier subperiod and a negative or statistically insignificant effect in 2015–2019. Its estimates vary across periods and refer to immigrant population shares. The study does not identify effects by religion. Published district study

A US historical study compares incarceration by birthplace from 1870 to 2020. It finds lower incarceration rates for immigrants in recent decades. Incarceration is the outcome measured and the comparison uses birthplace. It does not estimate protest involvement, incidents committed, or outcomes by religious affiliation. NBER research paper

International migrants in six destinations, midyear 2024

United States52,375,047

Germany16,750,084

United Kingdom11,845,479

Canada8,805,839

France9,186,757

Netherlands2,956,518

These are counts of residents in the UN’s 2024 migrant stock. Large populations can have large migrant counts even when migrants make up a smaller share of residents. The values come from the UN DESA destination dataset as reproduced in the 2024 country table.

Religious change and attribution

The country charts show the estimated share of all residents identifying as Muslim in 2010 and 2020. That share includes people born in the country. The 2024 migration figures include people of many faiths and people with no religious affiliation. Pew’s separate study estimates migrant religious composition through 2020. None of these sources identifies protesters or connects religious affiliation to a specific cost. The term Islamisation can refer to demographic change, religious practice or policy changes. Each requires its own measure. Population estimates · Pew migrant religion study